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Korean has a unique category of nouns called dependent nouns or bound nouns, which cannot stand alone and must be preceded by a modifying phrase or clause. Most of Korean language learners are familiar with the so-called counting nouns—개, 명, 병, 권, and so on—which are a subset of dependent nouns.

Beyond counting nouns, there are other dependent nouns that function as representatives of things or refer to abstract concepts, situations, attitudes, and more. One such noun is “것 (thing),” which takes on different meanings depending on the modifying phrase that precedes it.

• 먹은 것 – something one ate
• 먹는 것 – something one is eating / something one eats / something edible
• 먹을 것 – something one will eat / something to eat

As seen above, the meaning of “것” shifts depending on its modifier. “먹은 것” refers to something that has already been eaten, while “먹는 것” can describe something currently being eaten or something eaten regularly, or something that is edible. “먹을 것” can refer to something that will be eaten in the future or simply available to eat.

In these examples, the pre-noun (generally called adnominal) forming endings, “-ㄴ/-은,” “-는,” and “-ㄹ/-을” attach to the verb stem “먹- (eat)” to indicate different aspects of the action expressed by the verb. In linguistics, aspect refers to the state or condition of an action as expressed by a verb.

In general, there are mainly two aspects: perfective and imperfective. The perfective aspect presents an action as complete. One way to indicate completion, a stative meaning, or a resultant state is by using the pre-noun forming ending “-ㄴ/-은.”

• 좋은 분 – a good person
• 내가 어제 간 곳 – the place I went yesterday

Add “-은” to a verb stem that ends in a consonant and “-ㄴ” to one that ends in a vowel.

The adjective “좋- (good)” ends in a consonant, so “-은” is attached to allow it to precede the dependent noun “분 (person),” an honorific term for 사람 (person). However, since adjectives are inherently stative, it is natural for adjective stems to take the pre-noun forming ending “-ㄴ/-은.” Thus, “좋은 분” refers to a person whose condition or character is good, meaning “a good person.”

The verb “가- (go)” ends in a vowel, so “-ㄴ” is added allowing the verb to precede the dependent noun “곳 (place).” Therefore, the combination of the verb stem and the pre-noun forming ending “간” indicates a completed and resultant action, meaning “went.”

• 쉬는 날 – day off
• 지금 집에 가는 중이에요. – I’m on the way home now.

The imperfective aspect presents an action as ongoing, uncertain, or related to the future—something not yet definite. “-는” is a one-shape pre-noun ending that indicates an ongoing action.

The dependent noun “날 (day)” serves as the central word of the phrase “쉬는 날.” However, in general, the meaning of “날” cannot be determined without a modifier. The verb “쉬- (rest)” inherently expresses a continuous action, but its aspect can shift depending on the pre-noun forming endings.

To express meanings such as “resting day” or “a day off,” the ending “-는” is attached to the verb stem, marking the action as ongoing or habitual. Thus, “쉬는” conveys an ongoing or repetitive action.

This linguistic phenomenon is not unique to Korean but is also found in English. For instance, it is common to form adjectives from verbs by adding a morpheme that indicates an ongoing state, such as ‘costing,’ ‘demanding,’ and ‘amazing.’

The combination of the verb “가- (go)” and the ending “-는” marks the action as imperfective, specifically, progressive. The dependent noun “중 (middle)” means ‘middle’ or ‘center’ and originates from Chinese “中.” Thus, the phrase “가는 중” literally means “in the middle of going,” as the action remains unfinished and incomplete until the subject reaches its destination.

• 어릴 때 – as a child
• 먹을 때 말 시키지 마. – Don’t talk to me when I eat.
• 일본에 여행 갔을 때 진짜 재미있었어요. – We had a lot of fun when we traveled to Japan.

The pre-noun forming ending “-ㄹ/-을” marks an action or state as uncertain, attaching “-ㄹ” to verb stems that end in a vowel and “-을” to those that end in a consonant. Depending on the meaning of the dependent noun and the verb, the ending “-ㄹ/-을” can indicate something uncertain or prospective.

The dependent noun “때 (time)” refers to a specific moment when something happens or a span of time during which something occurs. Since time can be difficult to define and express precisely, speakers often convey it in an approximate manner in conversation.

Based on this characteristic of time, “때” typically requires the ending “-ㄹ/-을.” Thus, “어릴 때” refers to a period of youth with no clear boundaries, meaning it lacks a definite beginning and end. Similarly, “먹을 때” refers to the time when one eats.

On the other hand, the pre-noun forming ending “-ㄹ/-을” is followed by the past tense marker “-았-/-었-,” it adds a sense of uncertainty regarding the time frame, as demonstrated. Thus, “일본에 여행 갔을 때” refers to the period of time when one traveled to Japan in the past, but without clearly defined boundaries.

Additionally, due to their abstract and conceptual nature, dependent nouns in Korean function as substitute expressions, replacing more concrete words or even entire clauses. Unlike general nouns, which typically refer to tangible objects or clearly defined concepts, dependent nouns have undergone a high degree of abstraction, making them highly versatile in various linguistic contexts.

• 손님 (customer): 떡볶이 일 인분 주세요. – One tteokbokki, please.
• 점원 (clerk): 떡볶이가 많이 매운데 괜찮으세요? – Our tteokbokki is very spicy, do you mind?
• 손님 (customer): 안 매운 거 있어요? 아니면, 크림 소스 들어간 거도 괜찮은데… – Do you have anything that’s not spicy? Or, one with cream sauce would be fine too…
• 점원 (clerk): 죄송해요. 저희가 매운 떡볶이 집이라서 그런 거는 없어요. -Sorry, we’re a spicy tteokbokki restaurant, so we don’t have anything like that.

In the conversation, “거” in “안 매운 거 (something not spicy)” and “크림 소스 들어간 거(one with cream sauce)” functions as a substitute for “떡볶이.” Meanwhile, “거” in “그런 거” refers to a previously mentioned idea. However, it is unclear whether “그런 거 (such a thing)” refers to “안 매운 거 (something not spicy),” “크림 소스 들어간 거 (one with cream sauce),” or both—unless clarified by the speaker in the conversation.

As a side note, “그런” in “그런 거” is formed by combining the verb stem “그렇- (meaning “like that” or “as such”)—an irregular verb—with the pre-noun forming ending “-ㄴ/-은.”